Some form of public relations existed prior to the flourishing of the Roman and Greek civilizations. Priests in ancient Egypt excelled in influencing public opinion, persuading the general public to act, for the most part, as the priests desired. The priests used their power to various ends: to enhance (or to ruin) the current ruler's reputation, to guarantee that the art and literature of the day depicted the world according to their vision, and to ensure their own continued favor in the eyes of the people.
Elsewhere, in earlier times, public opinion focused entirely on the rulers, who used basic public relations tools to mold followers. The invention of writing significantly altered the molding of public opinion. For example, the literary legacy of ancient Assyria, Babylon and Persia, preserved by means of elaborate scrolls and drawings, invariably portrays extremely brave and accomplished rulers. Of course, such impressions were most often molded directly by the monarchs, themselves. The rulers thus ensured that public opinion would reflect what they wanted it to-not just during their own lifetimes, but for all of history.
During the major period of growth in Greek civilization, priests played a less significant role in molding public opinion than they had earlier. Public opinion became more influenced by non-religious or secular forces. There was a distinct separation of church and state. Therefore, government leaders, in contrast to church heads, independently assumed a role which they had previously shared, for the most part, with the religious hierarchy. These government leaders became very interested in public opinion, and not unlike heads of state in subsequent civilizations, they used public relations skills to influence what citizens thought. That was especially true in molding a favorable image of the leaders' accomplishments.
Relatively speaking, the Greek citizens in this era were encouraged to form and express their own opinions. Even though the leaders did attempt to present the most favorable image of themselves, they were not absolute dictators who insisted upon a nation of citizens who offered only constant praise concerning the governing bodies.
At the same time, leaders did encourage the people to maintain a unified state spirit. This was based upon certain ideals which were considered to be necessary for the running of a productive and successful state. Leaders began to "take the pulse of the population" by conducting interviews; in effect, these represented examples of the earliest public opinion surveys. As the Greek city-states grew, so did the importance of public opinion. And the leaders used public relations methods to communicate with the general population.
The Roman Empire also emphasized public opinion, and its leaders made liberal use of public relations. Some of the great works of history were reflections of public opinion during the period. The history recorded by Julius Caesar and the great oratory of Cicero illustrate with primary examples how public opinion was formed. Written records and oratory were often used to direct the citizens toward a particular way of thinking. These were early methods of public relations which have endured throughout the centuries.
Propaganda and Public Relations
In discussing the history of public relations, the word propaganda must also be noted. The word has changed in meaning since its inception during the seventeenth century. Propaganda can mean something negative and it is not easy to define. However, according to the Institute for Propaganda Analysis, it is an opinion offered by one or more persons, designed to influence others' actions or opinions while referring to goals or ends that have already been determined.
This function of influencing others toward a predetermined end should not of itself be thought of as something negative. In fact, as H. Frazier Moore, University of Georgia journalism professor, has pointed out,
In its broadest sense, propaganda is honest and forth-right communication intended to advance a cause through enlightenment, persuasion, or a dedicated sense of mission. It is currently employed by religious, charitable, political and social service institutions to influence the thoughts and actions of others for their best interests. In this sense, propaganda is legitimate persuasion.
But, as Frederick E. Lumley observed fifty years ago, many totalitarian governments throughout the world have used propaganda to further their own devious and harmful regimes. These dictatorships have twisted facts and presented false and inflammatory information: "Propaganda of every kind awakens passion by confusing the issues; it makes the insignificant seem weighty; it makes the important seem trifling; it keeps the channels of communication full of exciting stuff; it keeps people battling in a fog."
The major distinction between advertising, as we know it today, and propaganda, is that the general public knows that the advertiser is attempting to persuade; the propagandist is more subtle. The advertiser tries to motivate the observer toward a certain course of action. In contrast, propaganda, as defined in the negative sense, contains a hidden or concealed goal or motivation. Most observers are not aware of the motivation-which is why propaganda can be bad. A perceptive and valid observation of public relations, and how it represents propaganda in the very best sense, was offered by Professor Moore:
Public relations is sometimes referred to as propaganda. Since they are deliberately designed to influence public opinion, public relations programs may be considered as propaganda in the best sense of the word. Most public relations programs are honest and straight-forward efforts to influence public opinion. However, as the word 'propaganda' is commonly understood today, public relations is not propaganda; it is not a subversive activity that suppresses relevant facts, publishes false and misleading information, distorts the truth and attempts to manipulate public opinion.
